Nietzsche asserted that what made people great was not the content of their beliefs, but the act of valuing. Nietzsche has influenced philosophers such as Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre,[326] Oswald Spengler,[327] George Grant,[328] Emil Cioran,[329] Albert Camus, Ayn Rand,[330] Jacques Derrida,[citation needed], Sarah Kofman,[331] Leo Strauss,[332] Max Scheler, Michel Foucault, Bernard Williams,[citation needed] and Nick Land. Nietzsche led "Germania", a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. [174] Michel Foucault commented that his own book Madness and Civilization should be read "under the sun of the great Nietzschean inquiry". [69], With Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received a remarkable offer, in 1869, to become a professor of classical philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland. He wants a kind of spiritual evolution of self-awareness and overcoming of traditional views on morality and justice that stem from the superstition beliefs still deeply rooted or related to the notion of God and Christianity. According to Deussen, Nietzsche "never decided to remain unmarried all his life. During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France and the United States. He owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation and later admitted that Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers whom he respected, dedicating the essay "Schopenhauer as Educator" in the Untimely Meditations to him. [150] Köhler also suggests Nietzsche may have had a romantic relationship, as well as a friendship, with Paul Rée. [325] Sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies read Nietzsche avidly from his early life, and later frequently discussed many of his concepts in his own works. While Nietzsche attacked the principles of Judaism, he was not antisemitic: in his work On the Genealogy of Morality, he explicitly condemned antisemitism and pointed out that his attack on Judaism was not an attack on contemporary Jewish people but specifically an attack upon the ancient Jewish priesthood who he claimed antisemitic Christians paradoxically based their views upon. The file will be sent to your Kindle account. Please login to your account first; Need help? [138] Nietzsche wrote in 1888, "My ancestors were Polish noblemen (Nietzky); the type seems to have been well preserved despite three generations of German mothers. [115] Nietzsche had previously written, "All superior men who were irresistibly drawn to throw off the yoke of any kind of morality and to frame new laws had, if they were not actually mad, no alternative but to make themselves or pretend to be mad." He argued that this fusion has not been achieved since the ancient Greek tragedians. [52] At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important grounding in languages—Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and French—so as to be able to read important primary sources;[55] he also experienced for the first time being away from his family life in a small-town conservative environment. [238] Thus, he broke with his editor in 1886 because of his opposition to his editor's anti-Semitic stances, and his rupture with Richard Wagner, expressed in The Case of Wagner and Nietzsche contra Wagner, both of which he wrote in 1888, had much to do with Wagner's endorsement of pan-Germanism and anti-Semitism—and also of his rallying to Christianity. [52] The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsche's maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters. 1947. Find books [285] Author Jack London wrote that he was more stimulated by Nietzsche than by any other writer. Apollo represents harmony, progress, clarity, logic and the principle of individuation, whereas Dionysus represents disorder, intoxication, emotion, ecstasy and unity (hence the omission of the principle of individuation). Fornisce a ricercatori, amministratori e valutatori gli strumenti per monitorare i risultati della ricerca, aumentarne la visibilità e allocare in modo efficace le risorse disponibili. Italiano; English; One of the keys to understanding the relationship between state and anarchy in Nietzsche’s thought is the antagonism between Apollo and Dionysus highlighted by the German philosopher in many passages of his early works, such as the Birth of Tragedy. Elaborating on the conception of Hamlet as an intellectual who cannot make up his mind, and is a living antithesis to the man of action, Nietzsche argues that a Dionysian figure possesses the knowledge that his actions cannot change the eternal balance of things, and it disgusts him enough not to act at all. He was named after King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, who turned 49 on the day of Nietzsche's birth (Nietzsche later dropped his middle name Wilhelm). The two met Nietzsche in Rome in April 1882, and Nietzsche is believed to have instantly fallen in love with Salomé, as Rée had done. 1908. [168][169] For the audience of such drama, this tragedy allows them to sense what Nietzsche called the Primordial Unity, which revives Dionysian nature. Nietzsche's thought is the negation of the idea of a history of salvation. Only the yoke for the thousand necks is still lacking: the one goal is lacking. "Nietzsche's Quarrel With Euripides". 13. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNietzsche1887 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFNietzsche1888b (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFNietzsche1961 (, CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (. "The Struggle with the Daemon" is a brilliant analysis of the European psyche by the great novelist and biographer Stefan Zweig. During these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis, Carl Spitteler, and Gottfried Keller. Buon ascolto 2014. Dod, Elmar, "Der unheimlichste Gast. [336] In Memories, Dreams, Reflections, a biography transcribed by his secretary, he cites Nietzsche as a large influence. He had some following among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 1894–1895 German conservatives wanted to ban his work as subversive. [103][104], In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writings—known as the Wahnzettel ("Madness Letters")—to a number of friends including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt. One year before the publication of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche wrote a fragment titled "On Music and Words". Some maintain that Nietzsche contracted it in a male brothel in Genoa. [102] Two policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of Turin. However, in March 1868, while jumping into the saddle of his horse, Nietzsche struck his chest against the pommel and tore two muscles in his left side, leaving him exhausted and unable to walk for months. [150] Nigel Rodgers and Mel Thompson have argued that continuous sickness and headaches hindered Nietzsche from engaging much with women. He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. [54] He studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and Carl von Gersdorff. Language: italian. "[204], The statement "God is dead," occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in The Gay Science), has become one of his best-known remarks. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German; a 2a in Greek and Latin; a 2b in French, History, and Physics; and a "lackluster" 3 in Hebrew and Mathematics. [337] Aspects of Nietzsche's philosophy, especially his ideas of the self and his relation to society, run through much of late-twentieth and early twenty-first century thought. [148] Reflecting on unrequited love, Nietzsche considered that "indispensable ... to the lover is his unrequited love, which he would at no price relinquish for a state of indifference. Nietzsche saw his own writings as "completely buried and in this anti-Semitic dump" of Schmeitzner—associating the publisher with a movement that should be "utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind. Rivista di scienze della comunicazione e di argomentazione giuridica - A. XI (2019) n. 2", Trieste, EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste, 2019, pp. Hi Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (natawo Oktubre 15, 1844 - namatay Agosto 25, 1900) amo an usa nga manunurat nga alemano ngan pilosopo. L'idea di bene in Tolstoj e Nietzsche Lev Sestov. And man shall be that to overman: a laughing stock or painful embarrassment. Apollonian and Dionysian juxtapositions appear in the interplay of tragedy: the tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles to make (Apollonian) order of his unjust and chaotic (Dionysian) fate, though he dies unfulfilled. He read Kant, Plato, Mill, Schopenhauer and Spir,[241] who became the main opponents in his philosophy, and later Baruch Spinoza, whom he saw as his "precursor" in many respects[242] but as a personification of the "ascetic ideal" in others. [109] In January 1889, they proceeded with the planned release of Twilight of the Idols, by that time already printed and bound. [256] Hippolyte Taine influenced Nietzsche's view on Rousseau and Napoleon. "Nietzsche, Decadence, and Regeneration in France, 1891–1895.". Thomas Mann's novel Death in Venice[296] shows a use of Apollonian and Dionysian, and in Doctor Faustus Nietzsche was a central source for the character of Adrian Leverkühn. [220] According to these scholars, the 'burning' story supports their thesis that, at the end of his lucid life, Nietzsche rejected his project on the will to power. [132] The official revocation of his citizenship came in a document dated 17 April 1869,[133] and for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless. He associated slave morality with the Jewish and Christian traditions, as it is born out of the ressentiment of slaves. "Quale luogo spaventevole ha saputo fare della terra il cristianesimo, già per il solo fatto di aver collocato ovunque il crocifisso, e per aver in tal modo designato la terra come il luogo in cui «il giusto viene martirizzato a morte»!" In Western philosophy, Nietzsche's writings have been described as a case of free revolutionary thought, that is, revolutionary in its structure and problems, although not tied to any revolutionary project. Nietzsche subsequently concentrated on studying philology under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he followed to the University of Leipzig in 1865. Nietzsche used these two forces because, for him, the world of mind and order on one side, and passion and chaos on the other, formed principles that were fundamental to the Greek culture:[164][165] the Apollonian a dreaming state, full of illusions; and Dionysian a state of intoxication, representing the liberations of instinct and dissolution of boundaries. p. 11 of his transl. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes a master of this crisis, is a question of his strength! An example of the impact of this idea can be seen in the book Patterns of Culture, where anthropologist Ruth Benedict acknowledges Nietzschean opposites of "Apollonian" and "Dionysian" as the stimulus for her thoughts about Native American cultures. [155][156] However, there are also those who stress that, if Nietzsche preferred men—with this preference constituting his psycho-sexual make-up—but could not admit his desires to himself, it meant he acted in conflict with his philosophy. [74][ii], Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless. By 1882, Nietzsche was taking huge doses of opium, but he was still having trouble sleeping. "[124], Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche compiled The Will to Power from Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks and published it posthumously. The name derives from the forename Nikolaus, abbreviated to Nick; assimilated with the Slavic Nitz; it first became Nitsche and then Nietzsche. "In it, concepts such as the will to power, the eternal return of the same, the overman, gay science, self-overcoming and so on receive rough, unnamed formulations and are linked to specific pre-Platonic, especially Heraclitus, who emerges as a pre-Platonic Nietzsche. [40] In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and afterward a complete loss of his mental faculties. His inaugural lecture at the university was "Homer and Classical Philology". [186], In Beyond Good and Evil and On the Genealogy of Morality, Nietzsche's genealogical account of the development of modern moral systems occupies a central place. "Nietzsche's Aesthetic Solution to the Problem of Epigonism in the Nineteenth Century." Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with fascism and Nazism;[48] 20th-century scholars contested this interpretation, and corrected editions of his writings were soon made available. [227], Another concept important to understanding Nietzsche is the Übermensch (Overman). He concluded that metaphysics has reached its potential and that the ultimate fate and downfall of metaphysics was proclaimed with the statement "God is dead."[210]. Köhler argues that Nietzsche's syphilis, which is "... usually considered to be the product of his encounter with a prostitute in a brothel in Cologne or Leipzig, is equally likely. [131] His birthplace, Röcken, is in the modern German state of Saxony-Anhalt. [75][76], Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) as a medical orderly. [176][177][178] Nietzsche rejected the idea of objective reality, arguing that knowledge is contingent and conditional, relative to various fluid perspectives or interests. [228][229][230][231] Writing about nihilism in Also Sprach Zarathustra, Nietzsche introduced a value-creating Übermensch, not as a project, but as an anti-project, the absence of any project. [317] The Nazis made selective use of Nietzsche's philosophy. At the beginning of 1888, Brandes delivered in Copenhagen one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy. Willing the eternal recurrence is presented as accepting the existence of the low while still recognizing it as the low, and thus as overcoming the spirit of gravity or asceticism. He was also alienated by Wagner's championing of "German culture", which Nietzsche felt a contradiction in terms as well as by Wagner's celebration of his fame among the German public. ", Forth, C. E. 1993. [June 1868] 1921. Bobrowicz, Lipsk 1839–1845: herb Radwan (t. 8 s. 27–29)", "Nietzsche and Lou Andreas-Salomé: Chronicle of a Relationship 1882", "Historicizing Nietzsche? In 1886, Nietzsche broke with his publisher Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his antisemitic opinions. In Also Sprach Zarathustra, Nietzsche proclaimed that a table of values hangs above every great person. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (/ˈniːtʃə, ˈniːtʃi/;[32]German: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːtʃə] (listen) or [ˈniːtsʃə];[33][34] 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, cultural critic, composer, poet, writer, and philologist whose work has exerted a profound influence on modern intellectual history. [97][98] Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued through cycles of conflict and reconciliation, but they met again only after his collapse. In its preface—which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generate—he declares, "Hear me! Nietzsche first proposed the idea of eternal return in a parable in Section 341 of The Gay Science, and also in the chapter "Of the Vision and the Riddle" in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, among other places. 1988. [March 1887] 1921. "[145][146] The name Nietzsche itself is not a Polish name, but an exceptionally common one throughout central Germany, in this and cognate forms (such as Nitsche and Nitzke). However, in 1888 the influential Danish critic Georg Brandes aroused considerable excitement about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave at the University of Copenhagen. '"[225], Nietzsche suggests that the universe is recurring over infinite time and space and that different versions of events that have occurred in the past may take place again, hence "all configurations that have previously existed on this earth must yet meet". Nietzsche objects to Euripides' use of Socratic rationalism and morality in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian. During the same year, he encountered the work of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, to whom he felt an immediate kinship. [41], According to The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "He is famous for uncompromising criticisms of traditional European morality and religion, as well as of conventional philosophical ideas and social and political pieties associated with modernity. "[42], Nietzsche's writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism and irony. [233] In this way Zarathustra proclaims his ultimate goal as the journey towards the state of overman. [244], Nietzsche's philosophy, while innovative and revolutionary, was indebted to many predecessors. Nietzsche wrote of the affair in 1883, that he now felt "genuine hatred for my sister".[92]. [65] There, he became close friends with his fellow student Erwin Rohde. "Unger, Castoriadis, and the Romance of a National Future. Although Nietzsche had previously announced at the end of On the Genealogy of Morality a new work with the title The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values, he seems to have abandoned this idea and, instead, used some of the draft passages to compose Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist in 1888.[100]. Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, though he often complained. This having to transform into perfection is—art. The Greek spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering depicted by characters on stage, passionately and joyously affirmed life, finding it worth living. His works remain controversial, due to varying interpretations and misinterpretations. "[281][282][283] Nietzsche made an impact on composers during the 1890s. It was used to overcome the slave's sense of inferiority before their (better-off) masters. [187] To be "good" was to be happy and to have the things related to happiness: wealth, strength, health, power, etc. May, J. Rosenberg, Rorty, Richard. On 13 May, in Lucerne, when Nietzsche was alone with Salomé, he earnestly proposed marriage to her again, which she rejected. [181][182], Among his critique of traditional philosophy of Kant, Descartes, and Plato in Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche attacked the thing in itself and cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") as unfalsifiable beliefs based on naive acceptance of previous notions and fallacies. ", Concurring reports in Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche's biography (1904) and a letter by Mathilde Schenk-Nietzsche to, "Letter to Heinrich von Stein, December 1882.". In questa lezione affrontiamo la filosofia di Nietzsche. Between 1873 and 1876, he published four separate long essays: "David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer", "On the Use and Abuse of History for Life", "Schopenhauer as Educator", and "Richard Wagner in Bayreuth". Aristocratic values of good and bad coincided with and reflected their relationship to lower castes such as slaves. [306] Chaim Weizmann was a great admirer of Nietzsche; the first president of Israel sent Nietzsche's books to his wife, adding a comment in a letter that "This was the best and finest thing I can send to you. "[191] Just as "there is an order of rank between man and man", there is also an order of rank "between morality and morality. He believed the press and mass culture led to conformity, brought about mediocrity, and the lack of intellectual progress was leading to the decline of the human species. However, a recent study (Huang 2019) shows that although it is true that in 1888 Nietzsche wanted some of his notes burned, the 'burning' story indicates little about his project on the will to power, not only because only 11 'aphorisms' saved from the flames were ultimately incorporated into The Will to Power (this book contains 1067 'aphorisms'), but also because these abandoned notes mainly focus on topics such as the critique of morality while touching upon the 'feeling of power' only once. [134] He wore a signet ring bearing the Radwan coat of arms, traceable back to Polish nobility of medieval times[135] and the surname "Nicki" of the Polish noble (szlachta) family bearing that coat of arms. [171] He notes that whenever Apollonian culture dominates, the Dionysian lacks the structure to make a coherent art, and when Dionysian dominates, the Apollonian lacks the necessary passion. Jensen, Anthony K., and Helmut Heit, eds. In presenting his theory of human behavior, Nietzsche also addressed and attacked concepts from philosophies then popularly embraced, such as Schopenhauer's notion of an aimless will or that of utilitarianism. He spent many summers in Sils Maria near St. Moritz in Switzerland. La morte di Dio | Frederick Nietzsche | download | B–OK. Dalla nascita della tragedia all'eterno ritorno dell'uguale, in pochi minuti sarai in grado di apprendere la filosofia di questo autore ostico per certi aspetti. [1987] 1988. "Genealogy and Jurisprudence: Nietzsche, Nihilism, and the Social Scientification of Law.". [183] Philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre put Nietzsche in a high place in the history of philosophy. In February, they ordered a fifty-copy private edition of Nietzsche contra Wagner, but the publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed one hundred. Modern Europe and Christianity exist in a hypocritical state due to a tension between master and slave morality, both contradictory values determining, to varying degrees, the values of most Europeans (who are "motley"). Mussolini,[318][319] Charles de Gaulle[320] and Huey P. Newton[321] read Nietzsche. Born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the town of Röcken (now part of Lützen), near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. Other than Aphorism 36 in Beyond Good and Evil, where he raised a question regarding will to power as being in the material world, they argue, it was only in his notes (unpublished by himself), where he wrote about a metaphysical will to power. "Nietzsche and the Philology of the Future" (Stanford University Press, 2000). What happened remains unknown, but an often-repeated tale from shortly after his death states that Nietzsche witnessed the flogging of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms around its neck to protect it, then collapsed to the ground. ", Nietzsche, Friedrich. Year: 2013. 8). Some[237] have suggested that the eternal return is related to the overman, since willing the eternal return of the same is a necessary step if the overman is to create new values untainted by the spirit of gravity or asceticism. [188], "Slave morality" developed as a reaction to master morality. In the end, a past student of his, Heinrich Köselitz or Peter Gast, became a private secretary to Nietzsche. Likewise, he rejected the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable laws of nature, positing instead that movement was governed by the power relations between bodies and forces. 19; III. [173] Carl Jung has written extensively on the dichotomy in Psychological Types. 70–79. Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form that transcended the pessimism found in the so-called wisdom of Silenus. Jahrhunderts. '[213] More often than not, self-conservation is a consequence of a creature's will to exert its strength on the outside world. On his 44th birthday, after completing Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist, he decided to write the autobiography Ecce Homo. 1941. He also shared Nietzsche's view of tragedy. Nietzsche claimed the death of God would eventually lead to the loss of any universal perspective on things and any coherent sense of objective truth. For other uses, see, Philosophers and theologians associated with, A strict example of a cause-and-effect mismatch, with regard to the God-creator as the cause and our concepts as the effects, is perhaps not fully stressed in the ". [240], A trained philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of Greek philosophy. Media vita in morte sumus (Latin for "In the midst of life we are in death") is the first line of a Gregorian chant, written in the form of a response, and known as "Antiphona pro Peccatis" or "de Morte". [278][279][280] A similar notion was espoused by W.H. I have had Caiaphas put in fetters. [288] Wallace Stevens[289] was another reader of Nietzsche, and elements of Nietzsche's philosophy were found throughout Stevens's poetry collection Harmonium. "[iii], Deussen cited the episode of Cologne's brothel in February 1865 as instrumental to understand the philosopher's way of thinking, mostly about women. Nietzsche. Schimbările introduse de Elisabeth Forster au fost caracterizate în respectivul lexicon drept „scandaloase și criminale” (Cristian Niemeyer). Milkowski, Marcin. To be "bad" was to be like the slaves over whom the aristocracy ruled: poor, weak, sick, pathetic—objects of pity or disgust rather than hatred. Nietzsche's concept "God is dead" applies to the doctrines of Christendom, though not to all other faiths: he claimed that Buddhism is a successful religion that he complimented for fostering critical thought. "La follia è nei singoli qualcosa di raro – ma nei gruppi, nei partiti, nei popoli, nelle epoche è la regola." He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897 and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche. We are deprived of strength when we feel pity. Hamlet falls under this category—he glimpsed the supernatural reality through the Ghost, he has gained true knowledge and knows that no action of his has the power to change this. Born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the town of Röcken (now part of Lützen), near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He went on to list the number of people Epicurus, for example, had to rely on to supply his simple diet of goat cheese.[86]. Si chiarirà inoltre la concezione nietzscheana della verità, esemplificata dalle note figure della morte di Dio e dell’avvento di Zarathustra per mezzo delle novità astronomiche ottocentesche: la misurazione della velocità della luce e della distanza delle stelle, l’introduzione del termine “anno luce” e l’idea della nascita e della morte delle stelle. J.L. The Apollonian and Dionysian is a two-fold philosophical concept, based on features of ancient Greek mythology: Apollo and Dionysus. "[189], A long-standing assumption about Nietzsche is that he preferred master over slave morality. [39] His body of work touched a wide range of topics, including art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew early inspiration from figures such as philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer,[20] composer Richard Wagner,[20] and writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In 1883, he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the University of Leipzig. Save for later. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNietzsche2001 (, Wahrig-Schmidt, B. She reworked Nietzsche's unpublished writings to fit her own German nationalist ideology while often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism. von Müller, Hans. [iv][217] One study of Nietzsche defines his fully developed concept of the will to power as "the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and the quality that devolves into each force in this relation" revealing the will to power as "the principle of the synthesis of forces. In this way, tragedy is born from music. Capirai cos'è la trasvalutazione dei valori, la morte di Dio, il nichilismo attivo e passivo, l'oltreuomo, la volontà di potenza e l'eterno ritorno dell'uguale. The willingness is more essential than the merit of the goal itself, according to Nietzsche. In his opinion, some people would be able to become superior individuals through the use of will power. [341] For Nietzsche, this grand striver overcomes obstacles, engages in epic struggles, pursues new goals, embraces recurrent novelty, and transcends existing structures and contexts.